SY IKS Unit:2 Science and Technology in Ancient India (Agriculture, Biology, Astronomy, Metallurgy and Textile industry)

 

 2 Science and Technology in Ancient India

1. Agriculture

A sentence is inscribed at the Udaipur Agricultural University: “The line drawn by the tip of the plow is the dividing line between savagery and civilization in human history.” The earliest mention of agriculture with pride is found in the Rig Veda, the world's oldest scripture.

अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृ षिषर्त् कृ िस्व षित्ते रर्स्व बहुर्न्यर्मनः ।

“Do not gamble, do farming, and earn money with respect”

कृ षिर्ान्यम कृ षिर्ेध्यम जन्तूनमां जीिनां कृ षिः । कृ षि पमरमशर

“Agriculture gives wealth and intelligence. Agriculture is the basis of human life”

Agriculture began as humans progressed towards civilization. In India, agriculture developed as a science. Its history is briefly described in the book 'A Concise History of Science in India'.

In the Vedic period, there were many agricultural practices such as sowing seeds, weeding, etc., tools like plow, sickle, sieve, etc., and production of many grains like wheat, rice, barley, etc. The credit for starting the tradition of increasing soil fertility by crop rotation goes to the farmers of that time. According to Romsburg, the father of European botany, this method was later adopted by Western countries.

During the Mauryan period, the appointment of an agricultural officer to increase agriculture, agricultural production, etc. is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra

An irrigation system was developed for agriculture. According to the Greek traveler Megasthenes, officials were appointed by the king to supervise rivers and wells to ensure equal distribution of water in the main canals and their branches.

Agriculture is mentioned in ancient texts like Naradasmriti, Vishnu Dharmottara, and Agni Purana. The 'Krishi Parashara' became a reference book for agriculture. This book discusses many special aspects related to agriculture.

• Tillage: It describes the type of plow, its parts, and the area to be tilled. It also describes the oxen used for plowing, their color, nature, and the humane approach to be adopted towards them while working in the fields.

• Predicting Rainfall: People in ancient times made a detailed observation of nature, studied the movement of planets and the changes in nature, and made predictions based on them. Sage Parashara describes the results based on which planet is the lord of the year:

1. If the Sun is the lord of the year, there will be less rain and people will have to suffer.

2. If the Moon is the lord of the year, there will be rain, plant growth, and people will be healthy.

3. Similarly, if Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus are the lords of the year, the situation will be fine, but if Saturn is the lord of the year, there will be disasters everywhere.

• Time for Sowing: They determined the right time for sowing based on the observation of constellations and work.

• Seed Sowing: Sage Parashara, in his advice for optimal seed collection, recommends that seeds should be collected during the month of Maha (January-February) or Phalguna (February-March), dried in the sun, and stored in a cool and secure place.

• Measurement of Rainfall: In 'Krishi Parashar,' there is also a description for measuring rainfall. This measure for rainfall is still in use today. “Adhak” refers to one hundred yojanas in length and three hundred yojanas in height of the place where the rainfall is being measured.

“One “yojana” equals the span of one hand, which is four adhak or 6.4 cm”

According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, the measurement of rainfall is based on the yojana, and it also mentions how much rainfall occurs in different parts of the country.

• Grafting: Varahamihira describes two methods of grafting in his 'Brihat Samhita.' They are as follow:

1. Cut the rootstock tree and insert the cutting (scion) from another tree into the stem.

2. Cover the joint with soil and manure to secure the graft.

Varahamihira, an ancient Indian astronomer and scholar, also mentioned grafting techniques in his work, “Brihatsamhita”. He recommended grafting trees with fewer branches during the Shishir Ritu (winter season) and those with multiple branches during the Hemanta Ritu (late autumn) and Sharad Ritu (early autumn).

Varahamihira also provided guidelines for watering transplanted and newly planted trees. He advised watering transplanted trees daily, both in the morning and evening, during the summer. During the cold season, watering should be done every other day, and during the monsoon season, only when the soil dries out. This is evident from the fact that India's land remained productive for thousands of years, while millions of hectares of land in America have become barren within a few centuries.

The text cites examples from Dharampal's book “Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century” to illustrate the admiration expressed by the British for Indian agricultural methods. At that time, India was a leader in the world in terms of its well-developed agricultural tools and techniques.

The one-line sowing technique, which involves sowing seeds in a straight line, is considered a highly skilled and useful invention in the field of agriculture. This technique was first used in Austria in 1962 and in England in 1730. However, its widespread adoption in these regions took another 50 years. According to Major General Alexander Walker, the practice of line sowing has been in use in India since ancient times. Thomas Hallcott, in a letter written to the English Board of Agriculture in 1797, stated that the technique had been in use in India since ancient times. He sent three pairs of the line-bar plow to the Board so that the English could copy it, as it was more useful and cheaper than the English plow.

Mr. Walker writes, “In India, various types of grains are grown, possibly more than any other country in the world, and a wide variety of nutritious foods from different communities are also prevalent here. In my understanding, it is not clear what we can offer India. Because the foods we eat are available there, they are in India. There are many special types of food there as well.

• Biology: According to Indian tradition, the evolution of life in creation has occurred in stages. This expression has been found in many scriptures. In the Srimad Bhagavatam, it is described:

सृष्ट्वम पुरमषि षिषिर्मन्यजयमत्मशक्त्यम िृक्षमन् सरीसृपपशून् खगदांशर्त्स्यमन्। तैस्तैर अतुष्टहृदयः पुरुिां षिर्मय ब्रह्ममिलोकषर्ििां र्ुदर्मप देिः ॥ ११८ – २८

“Having created various living beings like trees, creepers, animals, birds, aquatic creatures and fish by His inherent power, and having thus satisfied Himself within His heart, the creator, Lord Brahma, then gave rise to human beings to perceive the Supreme Being and experience bliss.” (11.28)

The fundamental energy of the universe was expressed in creation. In this process, various forms such as trees, animals, birds, insects, worms, and fish were created. However, complete consciousness did not manifest through these forms. Therefore, humans were created, who could directly experience this fundamental principle.

• Classification of Animals in Ancient Indian Tradition: Another point in the Indian tradition is the journey of life from its inception to human beings, which involved speaking of 84 lakh species. Modern science also believes that from amoeba to human beings, consciousness has spread among 1 crore 44 lakh species. It is astonishing that our ancestors made this discovery thousands of years ago. Many scholars have classified these 84 lakh species.

All animals have been divided into two categories: Yonij (those with a womb) and Ayoni (those without a womb). Some animals are produced from the union of both, while others develop spontaneously like amoebae.

• In addition, animals are broadly classified into three groups:

1. Jalchar (Aquatic Animals): All animals that live in water.

2. Bhuchar (Terrestrial Animals): All animals that roam the earth.

3. Khechar (Aerial Animals): All animals that fly in the sky.

   • Based on their mode of origin, the 84 lakh yonis (species) are further classified into four types:

1. Jarayuj (Viviparous): Animals that are born from their mother's womb, such as humans and animals, are called jarayuj.

2. Andaj (Oviparous): Animals that are born from eggs are called andaj.

3. Svedaj (Sweat-born): Tiny insects that are born from feces, urine, sweat, etc., are called svedaj.

4. Udbhij (Earth-born): Animals that are born from the earth are included in the udhbij class.

• The Brahma Vaivarta Purana classifies different yonis based on their number:

1. Sthavar (Stationary): 20 lakh (2 million) types

2. Jalaj (Aquatic): 9 lakh (900,000) types

3. Karma (Amphibious): 9 lakh (900,000) types that move on both land and water

4. Pakshi (Birds): 10 lakh (1 million) types

5. Pashu (Animals): 30 lakh (3 million) types

6. Vanar (Monkeys): 4 lakh (400,000) types

7. Manav (Humans): Remaining types

Animals are generally categorized into two groups: 1. Domestic animals and 2. Wild animals. This classification is also based on their physical structure. This classification has been mentioned separately in the book 'Science and Art in Ancient India'. According to it:

1. Ek Shaf (single-hoofed) animals include: horses, donkeys, mules, and the Indian bison (a type of buffalo), deer, and so on.

2. Dvishaf (double-hoofed) animals include: cows, goats, sheep, antelopes, etc.

3. Panch Anguli (five-fingered) animals, with claws, include: lions, tigers, elephants, bears, dogs, foxes, etc.

In ancient India, Dr. Vidyadhar Sharma 'Guléri' in his book 'Science in Sanskrit' describes the classification of animals according to Charaka's classification. Charaka Rishi categorized animals based on their mode of birth: by egg, by viviparity, by sweat, and by sprout.

• Charaka Rishi also classified animals into four categories based on their mode of birth: Jarayuja (born from the womb), Andaja (egg-born), Svedaja (sweat-born), and Udbhidaja (plant-born). (Charaka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 27/35-54). He also classified animals based on their diet and lifestyle as follows:

1. Prasaha (Those who eat by force): This category includes cows, donkeys, mules, camels, horses, leopards, lions, bears, monkeys, wolves, tigers, hairy dogs living near mountains, baboons, cats, dogs, rats, jackals, vultures, tigers, hawks, crows, shashdhri (a bird that catches and carries away squirrels in its claws), vultures, owls, common house sparrows, the kingfisher snatches fish living in the water and flies away after piercing them with its nails.

2. Bhūmiśaya (Land-dwelling animals): Snakes (white and black), Chameleon (with a patterned back), Kakuli deer, Maluyasarpa (a special type of snake), Frogs, Horses, Seh (a type of antelope), Gandak (a type of antelope), Kadali (a large cat resembling a tiger), Porcupine, Squirrel and Rat.

3. Anupadeśa (Animals living in watery regions): Wolf, Chamari cow (whose tail is used to make leather), Rhinoceros,Wild buffalo, Nilgai (blue bull), Elephant, Deer, Wild boar and Sambar deer.

4. Vāriśaya (Aquatic animals): Turtle, Crab, Fish, Dolphin (a type of shark), Whale, Shell, Conch, Otter and Crocodile.

5. Vārichārī (Water birds): Swan, Crane, Heron, Egret, Karandava (a type of swan), Pelican, Cormorant, Sarus crane, Brahminy duck, Comb duck, Water hen, Goose, Kakadund (a type of white swan), Utkrosha (a type of water bird),Pond heron, Chataka (cuckoo),Grebe, Nanda mukha (a type of water bird), Sumukha (a type of water bird), Coot, Rohini (a type of water bird), Stork and Chakwa (a type of duck).

6. Jāngalapashu (Wild animals born on land and living in forests): Chital (spotted deer), Deer, Sharabha (a large, eight-legged animal resembling a camel with four legs on its back), Charushi (a type of deer), Red deer, Eṇ (black deer), Sambhar, Varapota (a type of deer) and Rishya (a type of deer).

7. Viṣkīra (Birds that scatter food with their beaks and feet): Lava (quail), Francolin, Snow francolin, Chukor, Upachakra (a type of bird), Red jungle fowl, Wart-eater, Peacock, Rooster, Crow, Girivartaka (a type of bird), Gonard (a type of bird), Kakar (a type of bird) and Barbet.

8. Pratuda(Birds that eat food by repeatedly pecking with their beaks or claws): Woodpecker, Black drongo, Jīvañjīva (a bird that dies if it sees poison), Koel, Grey hornbill, Gopiputa (a type of bird), Priyātmaja (a type of bird), Lādhyā (a type of bird), Babul,Vataha (a type of bird), Dinḍimānak (a type of bird), Jatayu (a type of bird), Lohāpṛṣṭha (a type of bird), Baya weaver, Dove, Parrot, Sarang (chataka), Chirata (a type of bird), Shaurika (myna), Kalavin̄ ka (house sparrow), Chataka (Indian cuckoo), Bulbul and Pigeon.

Along with the above classification, Charaka has also given a detailed discussion of the meat of these animals and its effects on Vata, Pitta, and Kapha along with its uses. The eggs of partridge, dove, peacock, sparrow, and bulbul have also been discussed as food.

As in Sushruta's Sushruta Samhita, Panini's Ashtadhyayi, Patanjali's Mahabhashya, Amarasimha's Amarakosha, Prashasthapaada Bhashya of Darshan etc., there is a detailed description of the classification of animals. (Science and Crafts in Ancient India, p. 115 - 117)

• Veterinary Science: In addition to other subjects, there is also mention of veterinary science in the Puranas. There was a separate section of Ayurveda for the treatment of horses. It was named 'Shalhotra'. The general introduction of horses, their types of gaits, their diseases and treatment are described in the Puranas. The Agni Purana gives a detailed description of Ashvacalana and Ashvachikitsa. Along with elephant medicine, remedies for elephant pacification have also been described. The Garuda Purana also mentions the Hastavidya treatise of Rishi Palakapya. The Agni Purana also gives a detailed description of cow treatment.

• Shalhotra Samhita in Ashvachikitsa: In the field of human medicine, the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are as important as the Shalhotra Samhita is in the field of veterinary medicine. The time of Shalhotra can be estimated to be around 800 BC. His Samhita was also known as 'Hayurveda' and 'Turangasastra'. The original text includes 12000 verses. It was divided into eight parts. Only a few parts

2. Metallurgy

The purity of metals found at ancient civilization sites in India, such as Nalanda, Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Taxila, Dholavira, Surkotada, Daimabad, and Kalibangan, is remarkable, with levels ranging from 95% to 99%. This raises the intriguing question of how our ancestors achieved such a high level of refinement thousands of years ago.

Ancient India, also known as “Sujalam,” was a land of immense wealth and prosperity. We have all heard stories from our childhood about the abundance of gold and silver in our country. The accounts of foreign travelers during the Vijayanagara Empire's golden age corroborate this, as they noted the abundance of gold and silver being sold at vegetable prices in the Hampi markets.

Even earlier, when Alauddin Khilji first invaded Devagiri and defeated King Ramadeva Raya, the king presented Khilji with a significant quantity of pure gold. This demonstrates that our ancestors were well-versed in the properties of metals like gold, silver, copper, and zinc, and possessed the knowledge to refine them.

Surprisingly, few people in India are aware of the world's oldest gold mine, which is still in operation today.

Nestled in the northeastern part of Karnataka, India, lies the Hatti Gold Mines, a testament to the region's rich mining history. Located in Raichur district, this ancient mine dates back to at least 2,000 years ago, as revealed by carbon dating of two wooden logs found within its depths in 1955 by Australian Dr. Rafter. It is possible that the mine's origins extend even further back in time.

A remarkable feature of the Hatti Gold Mines is its immense depth, reaching an astounding 2,300 feet when it was first excavated around 2,000 years ago. Archaeologists believe that this incredible depth was achieved using the 'fire setting' technique. This involved heating the rocks within the mine using intense heat from burning wood, followed by a sudden dousing with water. The rapid temperature change caused the rocks to crack and fracture, making them easier to break down and extract.

Further evidence of the Hatti Gold Mines' antiquity lies in the discovery of a 650-foot-deep vertical shaft within the mine. This shaft stands as a remarkable testament to the skill and ingenuity of ancient miners, showcasing their mastery of excavation techniques.

The Hatti Gold Mines raise intriguing questions about the technological advancements of our ancestors. Why was gold the primary focus of mining activities at this site? Iron smelting technology, along with the necessary furnaces, was also widely available during this era. This is evident from the enduring presence of the 'Iron Pillar' near Qutub Minar in Delhi, which has remained remarkably rust-free despite being over 1,500-2,000 years old. Modern scientists are still grappling with the mystery of how our ancestors produced such corrosion- resistant iron.

Standing tall at seven feet, this copper Buddha statue is reminiscent of the Iron Pillar, another marvel of ancient Indian metallurgy. Dating back to the 4th century, this magnificent creation now resides in the British Museum in London. Remarkably, the copper of this statue has retained its pristine shine over the centuries, defying the ravages of time.

In the caves of the Ganga Valley, archaeologist Rakesh Tiwari unearthed evidence that pushed back the timeline of India's metallurgical expertise. Excavations revealed that as early as 2800 BCE, Indians possessed the knowledge to purify and refine iron, suggesting that our ancestors may have held this knowledge even earlier. Today, we have tangible proof dating back at least 4800 years.

Similar discoveries have been made in Chhattisgarh's Malhar region. Excavations a few years ago yielded numerous vessels and artifacts made from purified forms of iron and copper, dating back to 1800-1200 BCE.

Across South India, numerous furnaces dating back to 300 BCE have been unearthed, showcasing the expertise of ancient Indians in refining iron and steel to their purest forms. The British later dubbed this technique the 'Crucible Technique.' In this method, a crucible (a container for melting gold or iron) is filled with a mixture of pure iron, charcoal, glass, and other materials. The vessel is then subjected to intense heat, causing the iron to melt and absorb carbon. This high-grade iron was later referred to as 'Wootz Steel' by Arab warriors.

The ancient text 'Rasaratna Samucchaya,' authored by Vagbhatta, delves into the world of metallurgy, describing various furnaces essential for metalworking. It meticulously details furnaces like Mahagajaputa, Gajaputa, Varahaputa, Kukkutapata, and Kapotapata, specifying the number of cow dung cakes required for

each and the resulting temperatures. For instance, the Maha-Gajaputa furnace demands 2000 cow dung cakes, while the lower-temperature Kapotapata furnace requires only eight.

In today's era of modern furnaces, these fuel-based furnaces may seem like an outdated concept. However, it was with these very furnaces that incredible structures like the Iron Pillar were created. Even with modern technology, scientists today have been unable to replicate these tools.

Experiments to measure the heat generated by these ancient furnaces were conducted in modern times. Furnaces were constructed as described in the texts, and the heat generated was measured, which matched the descriptions in texts. Vagbhatta described four types of furnaces for temperatures above 900 degrees Celsius:

1. Angara Kosthi (Charcoal Furnace)	3. Gor Kosthi (Cow Dung Furnace)
2. Patala Kosthi (Underground Furnace)	4. Musha Kosthi (Rat Hole Furnace)

Of these, the Patala Kosthi bears resemblance to the 'Pit Furnace' used in modern metallurgy. In his treatise titled “Brihat Vimana Shastra,” Bharadwajamuni described the construction of 532 types of blacksmith's furnaces for melting various metals. The iron used to make the world-famous Damascus swords was sent from India.

The use of copper in India dates back to ancient times. Evidence of copper usage in India has been found since 300/400 BC. Copper vessels from the Harappan period have been unearthed during excavations at several sites, including Mohenjo-daro. There are also mentions and evidence of ancient copper mines in the Balochistan region of present-day Pakistan. There are also references to ancient copper mines in the Khetri region of Rajasthan.

Zinc, a versatile metal with a wide range of applications, has been an integral part of human civilization for centuries. While its exact origins remain shrouded in mystery, evidence suggests that India played a pivotal role in its discovery and development. It is a matter of great significance that the world's oldest known zinc mine is also located in India.

This ancient zinc mine, called Zawar, is located in a village of the same name, 40 kilometers from Udaipur. Zinc is still being produced from this mine today. Hindustan Zinc Limited is currently responsible for zinc production.

It is said that the Zawar mine was operational in the 6th century BCE. The process of making pure zinc was extremely skilled and demanding, as well as complex and technical. Indians had mastered this process.

Later, Nagarjuna, the author of Rasaratnakar, described the process of zinc production in detail. He mentioned the use of distillation, liquefaction, and other processes. In this process, zinc ore extracted from the mine is melted at a very high temperature (over 1000 degrees Celsius). The vapor that comes out during this process is distilled and cooled, and zinc is obtained in solid form from this process.

Europe had no information about the mineral zinc until 1740 CE, and they did not know how to produce it. The commercial process of zinc production in Bristol was similar to the Zawar process in India. This means that it can be said that Europe started producing zinc using the same method after seeing the zinc production process in India.

Thus, it can be said overall that Indian metallurgy has played a major role in the growth of the world's industrialization. Around 1000 CE, when India was considered the global emperor of the industrial world, many items made from various metals were exported on a large scale. Especially in the manufacture of zinc and high- carbon steel (iron) items, we were far ahead of the rest of the world and we were giving the knowledge of this subject to the world. It is enough for our metallurgy students to keep this in mind.

3. Astronomy

Astronomy is called the “eye of the Vedas” because the workings of the entire universe are determined by time, and the knowledge of time comes from the motion of the planets. Hence, astronomy has been a part of the Vedangas since ancient times. The Rig Veda, Shatapatha Brahmana, and other texts contain many examples of references to constellations, lunar months, intercalary months, seasonal changes, Uttarayana, Dakshinayana, the celestial sphere, the glory of the Sun, the measure of a Kalpa, etc. For this, the Rishis used direct observation. It is said that the Rishi Prajapati became blind while studying the Sun. Rishi Gritsamada spoke about the effects on the womb of the Moon. The 40th mantra of the 18th chapter of the Yajurveda shows that the Moon is illuminated by the Sun's rays.

There has been a method of observing astronomy using instruments. At the time of Aryabhatta, there was an observatory in Pataliputra more than 1500 years ago, which Aryabhatta used to obtain many results.

Bhaskaracharya says in the Yantraadhyayaya Prakaran of the Siddhant Shiromani granth, “Knowledge of the subtle parts of time is not possible without instruments. So now I will talk about instruments.” He has described the Nadivalaya Yantra, Yashti Yantra, Ghati Yantra, Chakra Yantra, Shanku Yantra, Chaap, Pariidhi, Falak etc.

Shri Dharmapal has written the book 'Indian Science and Technology in the Eight tenth Century'. It gives the essay 'Remarks on the Astronomy of the Brahmins' (published in 1790) by the famous astronomer John Playfair. This article proves that astronomy was known in India more than 6000 years ago and its calculations were used in the world. The essence of his article is that in 1787 M.L. Lomet, who was in the Siamese embassy, brought a Panchang with him when he returned. The missionaries sent two Panchangs from India, one from South India and the other from Varanasi. Another Panchang was sent by M. D. Leslie, which was from Narsapur in South India. This Panchang did not fit into the understanding of the French mathematicians of that time. So, they sent it to the Royal Astronomer John Playfair.

When Johann Playfair began his practice, he was struck by a remarkable fact that drew his attention: although these calendars are at different locations, the principles on which they are based are the same. Another strange thing that caught Playfair's attention is that the Yamoottara line in the Siamese calendar is at 184-15 west of the Meridian (a line emerging from a hypothetical celestial point in the sky), and this line does not coincide with the Meridian of Benares. This means that the origin of the Siamese calendar is not in Hindustan.

Playfair further writes, “One surprising thing is that all calendars mention a common era, which they consider the beginning of the Kali Yuga, and describe the positions of the stars on the day of the beginning of the Kali Yuga. They also calculate the passage of time during that period. It tells what the positions of the planets were at that time. This seems quite astonishing. It describes where Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Mercury, Venus, and others were located. It seems very strange.”

Playfair then carefully examines and concludes, “Today, due to the availability of modern tools, the positions of planets provided in the calendars prepared today and those provided in ancient calendars are equivalent within the limits of experimental errors. How this could have been achieved, Playfair places before us two alternatives:

1. Brahmins developed a flawless and accurate method of calculation and were familiar with the law of gravitational attraction of planets far and near.

2. Brahmins observed the sky using scientific methods. Playfair chooses the second option and accepts that Brahmins observed and examined the sky clearly during ancient times. It is astonishing that they made such calendars using their common means. To create them, geography, mathematics, and trigonometry were used.

   • Playfair makes two points:

1. It is proven that astronomy existed in India 3000 years before Christ, and the described positions of the sun and moon at the beginning of the Kali Yuga were based on real observations.

2. It must have taken 1000-1200 years for such pure knowledge to develop and become prevalent. Therefore, we can say that astronomy was developed in India based on direct experience around 4300 years before Christ.

Analysis by an impartial foreigner gives us the inspiration to do something further.

Shri Dharampal writes in his book that Sir Robert Barker, the then commander-in-chief of the British army in Bengal, who later became a member of the British Parliament, shed light on a paper titled Bramins observatory at Banaras (Banaras Observatory) written in AD 1777. He observed the observatory in 1772. At that time, the condition of the observatory was bad because it had not been used for a long time. Even then, Shri Barker carefully studied the instruments and tools that were added to the observatory. During his examination, it came to his attention that these instruments were made about 400 years ago. The measurement, fitting etc. of all these tools were absolutely flawless.

1. A Glimpse into Ancient Astronomy

1. Speed of Light: Once, Shri K.K. Shah, the then Governor of Gujarat, asked Prof. L. Sivayya, a physics professor at Mysore University, “Did our ancestors know the speed of light?” Shri Sivayya was an expert in both Sanskrit and science. He immediately replied, “Yes, they did,” and giving evidence, he said, “There are two hymns in the first Mandala of the Rig Veda.”

र्नो न योऽध्वनः सद्य एत्येकः सत्रम सुरो िस्व ईशे षिश्वितो न्योषतः सूयो षिश्वांरर्ः

“In four ghadi, the sun travels alone on the heavenly path. O Sun, you are swift-moving and all-beautiful, the giver of light and the illuminator of the world.”

In the commentary of these hymns, Sayanacharya writes a shloka describing swift movement, which describes the speed of light.

योजनमनमां सहसे द्वे द्वशते द्वे च योजने। एके न षनषर्िमर्ेन क्रर्र्मि नर्ोऽस्तु ते ।।

“Salutations to you, light, who travels 2202 yojanas in half a nimisha.”

Here, 1 yojana = 9 miles 160 yards Meaning: 1 yojana = 9.11 miles

1 day-night = 810000 half-nimishas Therefore, 1 second = 9.41 half-nimishas

Thus, 2202 X 9.11 = 20060.22 miles per half-nimisha And 20060.22 X 9.41 = 188766.67 miles per second This is very close to the speed of light accepted by modern science.

2. The Earth's Support: “Father, what supports the Earth on which we live? “Lilavati asked this question to her father Bhaskaracharya centuries ago. In response, Bhaskaracharya said, “My daughter Lilavati, some people say that the Earth is supported by the serpent Shesha, a turtle, an elephant, or some other object. But they are wrong. Even if we assume that the Earth is supported by something, and in this way, the cause has a cause, and again its cause. This sequence continues, then in jurisprudence, it is called the defect of non-establishment.” Lilavati said, “Father, even then the question remains that what supports the Earth? “Then Bhaskaracharya said, “Why can't we believe that the Earth is not supported by anything... If we say that the Earth is supported by its own strength and call it 'holding power', then what is the harm? “Lilavati asked, “How is this possible? “Bhaskaracharya spoke of the theory. The power of things is very strange.

र्रुच्चलो भूरचलम स्वभमितो यतो षिषचत्रमितिस्तु शक्त्य ।। ५ ।।

“The power of a strange and varied object naturally resembles the moving and non-moving entities.”

Siddhanta Shiromani Goladhyay – Bhuvanakosha Further says:

आकृ षष्टशक्तिश्च र्ही तयम यत् खस्थां गुरु स्वमषभर्ुखां स्वशक्त्यम । आकृ ष्यते तत्पततीि भमषत सर्े सर्न्तमत कि पतक्तियां रखे ।। ६ ।।

“The power of attraction of the earth by that through its own power, which keeps the moving and non-moving entities in front of the great support, shines just like the wise protect it equally from all sides. “

That is, the Earth has gravitational force. The Earth attracts heavy objects towards itself with its gravitational force and falls on the ground due to attraction. But how can something fall when equal force is applied from all sides in the sky? That is, the planets remain dependent in the sky because the gravities of different planets are maintained.

Nowadays, we say that Newton was the first to discover gravity, but 550 years before him, Bhaskaracharya had already shown it.

3. The Earth is round: Lilavati asks her father, “Father, the Earth looks flat to me all around, so why do you say that the Earth is round?” Then Bhaskaracharya says, “Daughter, what we see is not always the truth. Draw a large circle. Then take 1/100th of its circumference. It will appear to you as a straight line, but in reality, it is not straight, it is curved. In this way we see a small part of the sphere of the vast Earth. This is why the Earth appears flat. In reality, the Earth is round.”

4. The Earth is not stationary: In the West, until the time of Galileo in the 15th century, it was believed that the Earth was stationary and that the Sun revolved around it. However, Aryabhata, who lived 1500 years ago, described that the Earth rotates on its own axis, as explained below:

अनुलोर्गषतनोस्थः पश्यत्यचलर्् षिलौर्गां यद्वत् । अचलमषन भमषन तद्वत् सर् पषश्चर्गमषन लांकमयमर्् ।।

“Just as a traveller in a boat sees stationary rocks, trees, etc. on the shore moving in the opposite direction, so too can the stationary stars be seen moving directly from east to west in Lanka.”

5. Sunrise-Sunset: Due to the spherical shape of the Earth and the difference in distances between lines in different cities, sunrise and sunset occur at different times in different places. Aryabhata was aware of this. He writes:

उदयो यो लांकमयमां सोस्तर्यः सषितुरे ि षसद्धपुरे । र्ध्यमह्नो यिकोट्मां रोर्क षिियेऽर्ारमत्रः स्यमत् ॥

“What is sunrise in Lanka is sunset for the Sun in Siddhapura. Midday in Yavakota is midnight in the region of Rome.”

6. Lunar and Solar Eclipse: when the Earth's large shadow falls on the Moon, it is called a lunar eclipse. In the same way, when the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun, it is called a solar eclipse.

छमदयषत शशी सूया शषशनां र्हती च भूच्छमयम ॥३७॥

“The moon obscures the sun and creates a great shadow.”

7. Distance between different planets: Aryabhata provided information about the distances of various planets from the sun. These distances are consistent with modern measurements. Today, the distance between the Earth and the sun is 1.5 x 10^8 km (150 million km). This is called an astronomical unit (AU). Based on this ratio, the following table can be created:

Planet	Aryabhata’s Measurement	Current Measurement
Mercury	0.375 AU	0.387 AU
Venus	0.725 AU	0.723 AU

Mars	1.538 AU	1.523 AU
Jupiter	5.16 AU	5.20 AU
Saturn	9.41 AU	9.54 AU

2. Expansion of the Universe

Our ancestors also experienced the vastness of the universe. Nowadays, the unit of light-year is used to measure the vastness of the universe. Light travels at a speed of 3 lakh km per second. The distance that light travels in one year at this speed is called a light-year. According to modern science, our galaxy, which is called the Milky Way, is one lakh light-years long and ten thousand light-years wide.

The Andromeda galaxy, which is above this galaxy, is 20 lakh 20 thousand light-years away from this galaxy and there are crores of galaxies in the universe.

In the Shrimad Bhagavata, King Parikshit asks the great sage Shukdev, how vast is the universe? In its definition, Shukdev mentions the expansion of the universe. Our universe is covered by a ten times larger covering than this. Each upper cover is ten times and I know seven such covers. All together with this, the entire universe in which atoms appear equal and in which there are crores of universes, is the cause of all causes. This thing seems a bit incomprehensible to the intellect, but we believe that everything has been generated and controlled by one power there, and one of the names of God, who is considered to be infinite universes, is Anantkoti Brahmandanayak. This name shows the infinity of universes there, and it also gives a feeling of being scientific.

In this way, from this brief observation, we can say that there has been a glorious tradition of timekeeping and astronomy in India. This stream had been somewhat obstructed in the past centuries. Today, the preceptors of the past are inspiring the present generation to carry forward this stream once again.

4. Textile Industry

In an article published in 'Bhumiputra' on June 16, 1986, Vinoba Bhave described how the art of clothmaking originated. The textile industry has its roots in cotton, which is derived from the cotton plant. Vedic tales narrate that the sage Grishmadeva was the first to sow the cotton plant. From his experiment, he obtained ten pounds of cotton. He then made yarn from this cotton. The problem that arose was how to make cloth from this yarn. To solve this problem, he made a wooden takli (spindle). In Vedic language, raw thread is called tantu.

The excess part that remains while making tantu is called otu. In this way, the sage Grishmadeva gave us the process of making cloth from cotton.

As time progressed, the industry evolved and expanded beyond cotton to include silk, wool, and other fibers. Embellishments with gold, silver, and other metals, as well as dyeing, became common practices for enhancing finished garments and sarees. Clothes were dyed in various natural colors to create a vibrant array.

At one time, Indian textiles were exported all over the world. The demand for Indian cotton fabrics, particularly the muslin from Bengal, which was renowned worldwide as 'Dhaka muslin', was immense among ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Arab traders. These traders sold these fabrics in various regions and cities of their respective countries.

In the preface to his research paper, Pramodkumar Dutt writes about the uniqueness of Indian textiles and the observations of various people regarding them:

“In the ninth century, two Arab travelers came here. They wrote that Indian textiles are so extraordinary that such fabrics are not found anywhere else. These garments are so soft, clean, and beautiful that an entire roll can pass through a ring.”

In the thirteenth century, Marco Polo made the remarkable claim that the production site of the most beautiful and finest silk fabric found anywhere in the world is the coast of Coromandel and Masulipattanam.

Many stories are prevalent about the fineness and delicacy of these garments. Once, Aurangzeb's daughter went to court. Aurangzeb was very angry when he saw her daughter's attire and said, “Shameless! Where has your shame gone that you are showing your body to the world?” His daughter replied, “What can I do, Father? This garment that I am wearing is not just one, but seven layers worn one over the other.”

Tavernier, a French merchant who traveled to India in the mid-17th century, describes cotton garments as “so beautiful and light that you cannot even feel them when you hold them in your hand. The beautiful embroidery on the cotton is barely visible to the eye.” He further states that just like Calicut, Sikandar (in Bhawalpur province) also produces such beautiful 'Calicut' (name of cotton cloth) that the wearer's body appears so clear that it seems as if they are naked! Tavernier recounts another memory: when a Persian ambassador returned from India, he gave a coconut as a gift to his sultan. The courtiers were surprised that he was giving a coconut as a gift to the sultan? But when the coconut was opened, the courtiers were amazed. A 30-yard-long muslin strip came out of it.

Mr. Wilkins gave Sir Joseph Banks a piece of Dhaka muslin. Banks says that this is the finest specimen of the fineness of garments in recent times. Banks himself analyzed and measured the cloth and sent the following details to the 'India House':

• Weight of the piece given by Wilkins: 34.3 grains (1 pound = 7000 grains and 1 gram = 15.5 grains)

• Length: 1 yard 7 inches

• Threads: 198

• Total length of thread: 1028.5 yards

• That is, 29.98 yards of thread were made from 1 grain.

• This means that these threads were 2425 counts. Even with today's modern technology, threads are not finer than 500-600 counts.

At the request of the Secretary of State for India, Sir G. Birdwood wrote a book, 'The Industrial Arts of India'. On page 83 of this book, it is stated that it is shown that in Jahangir's time, a piece of Dhaka muslin 15 yards long and 1 yard wide weighed only 100 grains.

English and other European writers have given poetic metaphors like 'bulbul's eye', 'peacock's throat', 'moon and stars', 'threads of air', 'flowing water', and 'twilight haze' to the muslin, cotton, and silk fabrics of this land. The production of cotton cloth and muslin began in England in 1772 and 1781 respectively.

In 1835, Edward Baines wrote, “Indians have maintained unparalleled and incomparable standards in their textile industry in every age. Some of their muslin garments seem to be made not by humans but by fairies and moths.”

The English conspired to destroy the cottage industries where these fabrics were made; the thumbs of those who wove these fabrics were cut off.

After the country's independence, there was hope that we would reconnect with our roots. The thumbs that had been cut off would be restored, but even today the country lives in the aura of Western technology. There is a need for reflection to change this.